What Is a Compound Fracture? Symptoms, Causes, Treatment & Recovery Explained
Updated: 3 days ago
Medically reviewed by Dr. Baraa Alnahhal, MD · Last reviewed: October 2026
Quick Answer
A compound fracture is an open fracture in which the broken bone breaks through the skin [1] [3]. It is extremely painful and requires immediate emergency care: call 911, press a clean cloth around the wound to control bleeding, and never try to push the bone back in [3]. Treatment involves surgically realigning the bone with hardware, a cast, and physical therapy.
Key takeaways
What it is: A bone break in which the bone pierces the skin and is visible (open fracture) [1] [3].
Opposite term: Simple or closed fracture — the bone does not break through the skin [3].
Typical cause: Severe trauma: car crash, fall from significant height, contact sports [1] [3].
Most common sites: The limbs — arms, hands, legs and feet.
Key symptoms: Visible broken bone, severe sharp pain, tenderness, swelling, bruising, bleeding [2] [3].
Diagnosis: Physical examination plus X-rays; sometimes MRI or CT [2] [3].
First response: Cover with a clean, wet towel, protect the area, get to an emergency department.
Treatment: Pain relief, tetanus vaccine and antibiotics [1] [3]; surgical realignment (reduction) with pins, rods, plates or screws [1]; cast.
Healing stages: Inflammation, repair and remodeling [3].
Recovery time: Several to many months.
Outlook: Often fully repaired; bone function usually returns to normal depending on severity.
Prevention: Fall and accident precautions, balance training, defensive driving, proper footwear.
What the research says
Contamination and severity drive infection risk after an open fracture. A systematic review and meta-analysis of 116 studies identified several risk factors for infection after open-fracture fixation. The risk ratios were 7.85 for a contaminated fracture, 3.01 for a Gustilo-Anderson grade III (most severe) open fracture, 1.94 for a lower-limb fracture, 1.72 for diabetes, 1.42 for male sex and 1.29 for smoking (Kortram et al., Int Orthop, 2017) [4].
For the most severe open fractures, delays to cleaning the wound raise infection risk. In a meta-analysis of 84 observational studies (18,239 patients), later debridement was linked to more surgical site infections overall (odds ratio 1.29). For Gustilo type III fractures the risk rose progressively with time, with odds ratios of 1.51 at a 12-hour threshold and 2.17 at 24 hours. These were observational studies, so they show an association rather than proof of cause (Foote et al., J Bone Joint Surg Am, 2021) [5].
Children's open fractures follow the same pattern, but the evidence is weaker. A systematic review of 17 studies (1,093 open fractures in children) found that the most severe injuries (Gustilo-Anderson III) had the highest rate of bone infection (osteomyelitis), at 10.7%, with no clear benefit of operative over non-operative treatment in that group. All of the studies were retrospective and at high risk of bias (Singh et al., Injury, 2020) [6].
What Is a Compound Fracture?
A compound fracture is a break or crack in your bone that is visible through your skin. Generally, bones break as a result of force or trauma — such as a car crash [3]. Fractures can also be caused by less traumatic but repeated force [3]. For example, if a soldier frequently marches with a heavy pack on their back, the repeated force on the leg could cause a crack in the fibula.
What makes a fracture "compound" or "open" is that the broken bone pierces the skin. If you fall from a ladder and land on your arm, breaking it, you will know it is a compound fracture if you can see the bone. "Simple" or "closed" fractures do not break through the skin [3].
Compound fractures are extremely painful, and seeing the bone exposed can be frightening. A fracture is a serious injury, and you should go to the emergency department immediately for help [3].
Which bones can fracture?
Any bone in your body can break, but compound fractures most commonly occur in the limbs — the arms, hands, legs and feet. Less commonly broken bones include the ribs, collarbone, eye bones, pelvis, skull bones, face bones, and the spine or vertebrae.
Bone group | How commonly involved in fractures |
Arms, hands, legs, feet | Most common — the typical sites of compound fractures |
Ribs | Less common |
Collarbone | Less common |
Eye bones | Less common |
Pelvis | Less common |
Skull and face bones | Less common |
Spine / vertebrae | Less common |
Compound Fracture Symptoms
A broken bone is a compound fracture if it breaks through the skin — you can see the broken bone. Beyond that defining feature, a compound fracture produces a cluster of acute symptoms at the injury site.
Symptom | What it looks like |
Visible broken bone [1] | The defining sign — the bone pierces through the skin |
Severe, sharp pain | Intense pain at the injury site [2] |
The area is very sensitive even to light contact | |
The injured area enlarges from fluid and inflammation | |
Discoloration as blood pools under the skin | |
Bleeding | From the open wound and surrounding tissues |
Nerve damage effects | Pain may be less or more severe than expected because of damaged nerves |
What Causes a Compound Fracture?
Severe trauma causes compound fractures [1]. The amount of force required to break the bone and push it through the skin is substantial. Examples of events that can cause this type of severe trauma include:
Repetitive lesser force causes a different kind of injury — a stress-type crack from repeated loading, as in the marching-soldier example. Compound fractures, by contrast, are the result of sudden, high-energy impact.
How Is a Compound Fracture Diagnosed?
A compound (open) fracture is more obvious to a healthcare provider than a simple (closed) fracture because the bone has broken through the skin. The provider will perform a physical examination and then order X-rays to see exactly how the bones are broken [1] [3] and how they need to be aligned. Sometimes a more sensitive test, such as an MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) or a CT scan (computed tomography), is required to fully assess the damage from the fracture [1] [3].
In addition to diagnosing the fracture itself, the provider will check for complications:
Checking the color and temperature of the skin.
Checking pulse and blood pressure to be sure there is no significant bleeding.
Checking for nerve damage by examining the area around and beyond the injury [1].
Compound fractures are obvious injuries. If you are taken to the hospital by ambulance after the fracture, the providers in the ambulance will be able to identify it. Whether or not you need an ambulance, you should always go to the nearest emergency department [3], where providers will diagnose the compound fracture and plan your treatment.
Compound Fracture Treatment Options
When you arrive at the emergency department, you will receive one or more pain relief options, including pain medications taken by mouth or delivered directly into a vein for faster relief, and a nerve block — a numbing medicine injected straight into the nerves around the area. You will also be given antibiotics as soon as possible, plus a tetanus shot if you are not up to date [1] [3], depending on what caused your injury and the location and severity of the fracture.
First-aid care: the P.R.I.C.E. principle
Treatment guidance for a compound fracture is often summarized by the acronym P.R.I.C.E. [3]:
Step | What to do |
Protection | Before going to the hospital, cover the open fracture with a clean, wet towel to avoid getting dirt inside it; avoid using the joints near the break unless absolutely necessary to get help |
Rest | Rest the body parts — you will heal faster and be less likely to cause more injury |
Ice | Ice above and around the fracture as soon as the injury occurs, but be careful not to contaminate the actual wound |
Compression | The limb or body part will be held in place for healing with a cast or other device |
Elevation | Raise the injury above your heart to reduce swelling [3] — check with a provider first, depending on the location of the break |
Surgery: reduction and fixation
You will need to see a surgeon, who will move each of the fractured bones back into a regular, more normal position. This is called reduction of the fracture. You will receive pain relievers, sedatives and/or anesthesia before the procedure.
During surgery, the bones may be aligned using hardware devices, including pins, rods, plates and screws [1] [2]. The bones are then immobilized in a cast or other device [2].
How a cast is applied
Once the bones are lined up correctly, the provider wraps the area in cloth and cotton material to protect the skin. Next, the injury is wrapped in bandages wet with plaster or fiberglass strips [3]. The bandages and strips harden when they dry.
How Do Compound Fractures Heal?
Your bones heal by creating new bone tissue. The new bone is called the external callus, and it begins to form shortly after the bone is broken [3]. At first it is not like normal bone — it is soft and provides no protection for the underlying break. But it grows stronger as it calcifies and develops into normal bone over weeks to months [3].
Compound fractures heal in three stages [3]:
Stage | What happens |
Inflammation | Your body starts healing right after the fracture [3]. Immune cells rush to the injured area instantly and increase blood flow, causing the skin around the fracture to swell and turn red. This can continue for some time as your body works to ensure healing. |
Repair | Lasting from weeks to months, the fractured bone is kept still (immobilized) in a cast. It is vital the broken bones do not move while healing. The body creates new bone tissue, but the soft external callus is easily damaged and needs protection. |
Remodeling | Taking several months, the callus grows thicker and calcifies [3]. As the bones remodel, they become a more normal shape and are less fragile. |
Is a compound fracture curable? Compound fractures can often be fully repaired through surgical correction of the deformity, along with care for the broken bone and the wound it caused.
How long does recovery take?
Compound fracture recovery time can be several to many months. It is important to be patient during healing. Several factors affect recovery speed:
What happens without treatment? A compound fracture is a very serious injury — not something to fix on your own. Without prompt emergency treatment, there is a higher likelihood of complications.
Complications of Compound Fractures
Compound fractures are complicated injuries, and providers check for complications in the emergency department, during surgery and throughout recovery. Not all compound fractures cause long-term complications, but the following are possible:
Complication | What happens |
Skin damage | The fracture injures the skin when it pierces it; skin heals while the bone heals; skin under the cast may need care after the cast comes off |
Joint damage | Fractures near a joint can impair the joint's movement; the break can damage cartilage, and immobilization can make joints stiff [3]; physical therapy — and sometimes surgery — is needed |
Nerve damage | The fracture can crush, bruise, tear or stretch nerves; mild nerve injury is likely and may take months or years to heal [3]; some injuries cannot heal, though this is less common |
Healing problems | Nonunion (bones don't grow back together), delayed union (slower healing) or malunion (bones grow back in the wrong position) [3]; monitored with X-rays |
Uneven limbs | In children, damage to growth plates near the ends of growing bones can cause one bone to grow shorter than the other side [3] |
Shock | Heavy blood loss — external or internal — can drop blood pressure suddenly and severely [3] |
More severe complications include:
Severe complication | Why it matters |
Infection | A fever or a strong smell coming from the cast may signal infection [3]; treat any possible infection as an emergency and get care immediately |
Pulmonary embolism | A blood clot near the fracture can travel to an artery in the lung and block it; most common after fractures of the pelvis or hip [3]; sudden shortness of breath after a significant fracture requires emergency treatment — pulmonary embolism can be fatal |
Osteonecrosis | The bone dies because of interrupted blood flow [3]; detected on X-ray |
Compartment syndrome |
Outlook and Prognosis
The outlook for a compound fracture depends on the actual injury. After a compound fracture heals, it will still be visible on X-rays, but you may not be able to tell just by looking at the area. The bone tissues often meld together well, and the bones' ability to function should return to normal use — depending on the severity of the break. You may need a lot of physical therapy to get back to your normal activities.
Prevention
Accidents can happen to anyone. You can reduce your risk of fractures by taking simple precautions:
Avoiding heights.
Doing yoga or other exercises to improve strength and balance.
Holding on to safety bars when getting in and out of the bathtub if you do not have great balance.
Driving safely and defensively.
Avoiding contact sports like football.
Being careful on slippery ground and wearing proper shoes for the surfaces you walk on [2].
Using a cane or walker if recommended by your healthcare provider.
Living With a Compound Fracture
How to take care of your cast
Taking proper care of the cast immobilizing your bones is vital for the healing process. Keep the following tips in mind:
Don't let the cast get wet unless your provider says it is OK. If the cast is not waterproof, it is difficult to dry; a wet cast can lead to sores or infection, so use a plastic bag or a waterproof cover made for casts [3]. If the cast falls apart, it should be replaced immediately.
Check the skin around the cast often [3]. Contact your provider if you see redness or drainage, or if the skin is sore.
Keep the cast elevated above your heart if possible during the first 24 to 48 hours [3] — put it on top of a pillow.
The skin under the cast may itch. This is uncomfortable, but leave it alone — never insert anything into the cast to scratch [3].
Wiggle your toes or fingers if it is safe to do so (check with your provider); this can help prevent swelling [3].
Check the edges of the cast for roughness or sharpness. If they are rough, use tape and gauze or another thin, soft material to protect your skin.
When to go back to the emergency department
If you have a cast on, watch for warning signs and go to the emergency department if you experience any of the following:
Is it possible to leave a cast on too long?
Yes — immobilization that lasts too long can cause joint stiffness, shortened muscles, and blood clots [3]. Clarify the length of immobilization with your provider and attend all scheduled follow-up appointments.
Do you need physical therapy?
Your provider may want you to go to physical therapy during and/or after immobilization. A therapist will guide stretches and exercises to improve strength, general function, and range of motion [1] [3].
Questions to ask your healthcare provider
Before leaving the emergency department, make sure you have answers to these questions:
How long will I need to be in a cast?
Do I need physical therapy while I'm in the cast, or after it comes off?
Should I see other specialists, such as an orthopaedic surgeon or neurologist?
Do I need more X-rays?
When do I follow up, and with whom?
Do I need prescription medications?
Conclusion
A compound fracture is one of the most serious types of bone injury: the broken bone pierces the skin, exposing the body to heavy bleeding and infection risk [1] [3]. It almost always follows severe trauma — a car crash, a significant fall, or a high-impact sports collision — and most often affects the limbs. The defining sign is visible bone, accompanied by severe sharp pain, tenderness, swelling, bruising and bleeding [2] [3].
Immediate emergency care is non-negotiable. First-aid protection (covering the wound with a clean, wet cloth and avoiding movement), pain control, tetanus vaccination and antibiotics come first [1] [3], followed by surgical realignment of the bone — often with pins, rods, plates or screws [1] — and cast immobilization. From there, healing runs a months-long course through inflammation, repair and remodeling [3].
The good news is that compound fractures can often be fully repaired, and bone function usually returns to normal, especially with dedicated physical therapy. The difference between a smooth recovery and lasting complications — infection, nerve damage, poor healing, compartment syndrome or shock — almost always comes down to how quickly professional care begins. If you suspect a compound fracture, cover the wound, protect the area and get to an emergency department without delay.
If you find visual explanations helpful for understanding or teaching others about complex health topics, explore Rinnit's infographic templates — designed to turn dense medical information into clear, shareable visuals.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is a compound fracture?
A compound fracture is a break or crack in a bone that is visible through the skin because the broken bone pierces the skin. It is also called an open fracture.
What is another name for a compound fracture?
An open fracture. The term "compound" and "open" describe the same injury.
What is the difference between a compound fracture and a simple fracture?
A compound (open) fracture breaks through the skin, while a simple (closed) fracture does not.
Can a compound fracture happen in any bone?
Yes — any bone in your body can break. However, compound fractures most commonly occur in the limbs: the arms, hands, legs and feet.
Which bones are less commonly fractured?
The ribs, collarbone, eye bones, pelvis, skull bones, face bones, and the spine or vertebrae are broken less commonly.
What causes a compound fracture?
Severe trauma — such as a car crash, a fall from a significant height, or a high-impact contact sport like football — provides enough force to break the bone and push it through the skin.
Can repeated minor force cause a fracture?
Yes, though not usually a compound one. Repeated force — like a soldier marching frequently with a heavy pack — can cause a crack in a bone such as the fibula. That kind of injury is a stress-type fracture, different from the high-trauma compound fracture.
What are the symptoms of a compound fracture?
The defining sign is a broken bone visible through the skin. Additional symptoms include severe sharp pain, tenderness to touch, swelling, bruising, bleeding, and possible nerve damage that makes the pain less or more severe than expected.
Why does nerve damage change how much a fracture hurts?
A compound fracture can crush, bruise, tear or stretch nearby nerves. Depending on the damage, the pain may register as less or more severe than expected.
Is a compound fracture an emergency?
Yes. A compound fracture is a serious injury, and you should go to the emergency department immediately for help.
What should I do first if I see a broken bone through the skin?
Cover the open fracture with a clean, wet towel to avoid getting dirt inside it, avoid using the joints near the break, and get to an emergency department as soon as possible.
What does P.R.I.C.E. stand for?
Protection, Rest, Ice, Compression and Elevation — the first-aid and aftercare principles used for fracture care.
Why cover an open fracture with a clean wet towel?
To keep dirt and contaminants out of the open wound before you reach the hospital.
Why shouldn't you move joints near a compound fracture?
Moving the joints near the break can shift the broken bone, worsen the injury and increase pain and damage.
Why rest after a fracture?
Resting the injured body parts helps you heal faster and reduces the likelihood of causing further injury.
Why ice around (not on) an open fracture?
Icing above and around the fracture helps right away, but you must be careful not to contaminate the actual open wound.
What kind of pain relief is given for a compound fracture?
Pain medications by mouth or directly into a vein for faster relief, and sometimes a nerve block — numbing medicine injected straight into the nerves around the area.
Why is a tetanus vaccine given after a compound fracture?
The open wound can be contaminated, and tetanus bacteria enter through open injuries. A tetanus vaccine may be given depending on the injury's cause, location and severity.
Why are antibiotics given for a compound fracture?
Because the skin is broken and the bone is exposed, there is a risk of serious infection. Antibiotics may be given depending on what caused the injury and the fracture's location and severity.
What is reduction of a fracture?
Reduction is the procedure in which a surgeon moves each of the fractured bones back into a regular, more normal position.
What hardware is used to align broken bones?
Pins, rods, plates and screws may be used during surgery to hold the bones in alignment.
What happens after the bones are realigned?
The bones are immobilized in a cast or other device to keep them still while they heal.
How is a cast made?
The area is wrapped in cloth and cotton to protect the skin, then wrapped in bandages wet with plaster or fiberglass strips. The bandages harden when they dry.
What is the external callus?
The new bone tissue your body creates to heal a fracture. It begins forming shortly after the break, is initially soft, and calcifies into normal bone over weeks to months.
What are the three stages of bone healing?
Inflammation, repair and remodeling.
What happens during the inflammation stage?
Immune cells rush to the injured area, increasing blood flow and causing the skin around the fracture to swell and turn red as healing begins.
What happens during the repair stage?
Lasting weeks to months, the bone is kept immobilized in a cast. The body creates new bone tissue — the external callus — which is soft, easily damaged and needs protection.
What happens during the remodeling stage?
Over several months, the callus grows thicker and calcifies. The bones take on a more normal shape and become less fragile.
How long does it take to recover from a compound fracture?
Recovery can take several to many months, and it is important to be patient during healing.
What affects how fast a fracture heals?
The severity of the injury, your age (children heal quicker than adults), complications after treatment, and other health issues that interfere with blood flow, such as diabetes and peripheral arterial disease.
Do children heal fractures faster than adults?
Yes — children generally heal quicker than adults.
Can diabetes slow fracture healing?
Yes — diabetes interferes with blood flow, which can slow healing.
Can peripheral arterial disease affect bone healing?
Yes — because it interferes with blood flow, it can slow recovery.
What is nonunion?
Nonunion is when broken bones fail to grow back together.
What is delayed union?
Delayed union is when the bones grow back slower than normal.
What is malunion?
Malunion is when the bones grow back in the wrong position.
How do providers check for healing problems?
Providers take X-rays to monitor how well you are healing and determine whether other treatment is necessary.
What are growth plates and why do they matter in children?
Growth plates are portions of bones near the ends where children's bones get longer. If a growth plate in a child's arm or leg is damaged by a fracture, that bone may not grow normally and can end up shorter than the other side.
Can a fracture cause blood loss and shock?
Yes — you may lose a lot of blood from a compound fracture, externally or internally (swelling as blood is trapped under the skin). Severe blood loss can drop blood pressure suddenly and send you into shock.
What are the severe complications of a compound fracture?
Infection, pulmonary embolism, osteonecrosis and compartment syndrome.
How do you know if a cast has an infection?
A fever or a strong smell coming from the cast may signal an infection. Treat any possible infection after a compound fracture as an emergency and get care immediately.
What is a pulmonary embolism after a fracture?
A blood clot in a vein near the fracture area can travel to an artery in the lung and block it. This most often happens after a fracture of the pelvis or hip. Sudden shortness of breath after a significant fracture requires emergency treatment, because pulmonary embolism can be fatal.
What is osteonecrosis?
Osteonecrosis is when bone dies because of interrupted blood flow. If it occurs, a provider will find it on X-ray and determine how it needs to be treated.
What is compartment syndrome?
Significant swelling of muscle or tissue around the bone can press against blood vessels, slowing or stopping blood flow. Tissues can be damaged or die — potentially requiring amputation — and infections can set in. Compartment syndrome can be very dangerous or even fatal if not treated quickly.
What warning signs should prompt immediate emergency care after treatment?
Unusual swelling, unexpected loss of sensation, numbness, weakness, continuous or worsening pain, a cast that feels too tight, a strong odor from the cast, or a fever.
Is a compound fracture curable?
Yes — compound fractures can often be fully repaired through surgical correction of the deformity, along with care for the broken bone and the wound.
What is the outlook after a compound fracture heals?
It depends on the injury. The healed fracture will still show on X-rays, but the area may look normal. Bone tissues often meld together well, and function usually returns to normal depending on the severity of the break.
Will the healed fracture still show on X-rays?
Yes — even after healing, the fracture site will still be visible on X-rays.
Can you get your normal function back after a compound fracture?
Yes — the bones' ability to function should return to normal use, depending on the severity of the break.
Why might you need physical therapy after a fracture?
You may need extensive physical therapy to get back to your normal activities, regain joint mobility, strength and range of motion, especially after joint damage or long immobilization.
Can a fracture near a joint affect the joint?
Yes — if the fracture is close to a joint, it can damage the cartilage at the ends of the bones and impair movement. Joints can also become stiff from immobilization. Physical therapy — and sometimes surgery — is needed.
Can nerve damage from a fracture heal?
Mild nerve injuries may completely heal, but it can take months or sometimes years. Depending on the amount of damage, some nerve injuries cannot heal, though these are less common than milder injuries.
Can a wet cast cause problems?
Yes — if a non-waterproof cast gets wet, it is difficult to dry and can lead to sores or infection. Use a plastic bag or waterproof cover, and have a fallen-apart cast replaced immediately.
Why shouldn't you scratch inside a cast?
Inserting anything into the cast can damage the skin and wound healing. If the skin under the cast itches, leave it alone.
Why wiggle your toes or fingers in a cast?
Wiggling them (if safe and approved by your provider) can help prevent swelling.
Why elevate a cast above the heart?
Elevating the injury above your heart during the first 24 to 48 hours reduces swelling. Check with your provider about timing depending on the fracture location.
What if the cast edges are sharp or rough?
Use tape and gauze or another thin, soft material to prevent the rough edges from hurting your skin.
Can a cast stay on too long?
Yes — immobilization that lasts too long can cause joint stiffness, shortened muscles and blood clots. Clarify the immobilization length with your provider.
How can you prevent fractures?
Avoiding heights, doing exercises like yoga to improve strength and balance, holding safety bars in the bathtub, driving safely and defensively, avoiding contact sports, being careful on slippery ground, wearing proper shoes, and using a cane or walker if recommended.
Can falls on wet floors cause fractures?
Yes — slipping on a wet floor can break a bone. Wearing proper shoes for the surface you're walking on and being careful on slippery ground reduces the risk.
Should you try to fix a compound fracture yourself?
No — a compound fracture is a very serious injury that you should never try to fix on your own. Waiting too long for treatment increases the likelihood of complications.
What questions should you ask your provider before leaving the hospital?
Ask about cast duration, whether you need physical therapy during or after the cast, whether to see other specialists (orthopaedic surgeon or neurologist), whether more X-rays are needed, follow-up timing, and whether you need prescription medications.
Who treats compound fractures?
Emergency department providers diagnose the fracture, and a surgeon (typically an orthopaedic surgeon) performs the reduction and fixation. Other specialists, such as a neurologist, may be involved if nerve damage is suspected.
Can a compound fracture heal without surgery?
Surgery is typically needed to realign the bones and stabilize them with hardware; the bone is then immobilized in a cast. Treatment planning is handled by your healthcare provider.
Does a healed compound fracture look normal from the outside?
Often yes — you may not be able to tell just by looking at the area, even though the fracture will still appear on X-rays.
What helps you get back to normal activities?
A lot of physical therapy, patience through the several-to-many-months recovery, and following your provider's cast-care and activity instructions.
Why is early treatment so important for compound fractures?
Untreated or delayed treatment raises the likelihood of serious complications — infection, nonunion, nerve damage, shock and compartment syndrome — and reduces the chances of full recovery.
Related Reading
Bone Fractures: What Happens When a Bone Breaks, and How It Heals
What Is a Broken Collarbone (Clavicle Fracture)? Symptoms, Causes, Treatment & Recovery
What Is a Comminuted Fracture? Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis and Treatment
Understanding Nerve Blocks: A Comprehensive Guide to Targeted Pain Relief
Compartment Syndrome: What It Is, Why It Happens, and How It's Treated
Pulmonary Embolism Guide: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, and Treatment
Avascular Necrosis (Osteonecrosis): Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis & Treatment — Complete Guide
Physical Therapy: Enhancing Mobility, Strength, and Recovery
Growth Plate Fractures in Children: Why Kids' Fractures Heal Differently Than Adults' Sprains
References
American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. Open fractures. OrthoInfo. Accessed October 15, 2026. https://www.orthoinfo.org/diseases--conditions/open-fractures/
National Library of Medicine. Fractures. MedlinePlus. Last updated May 14, 2024. https://medlineplus.gov/fractures.html
Campagne D. Overview of fractures. Merck Manual Consumer Version. Full review March 2025; last updated September 2026. https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/injuries-and-poisoning/fractures/overview-of-fractures
Kortram K, Bezstarosti H, Metsemakers WJ, et al. Risk factors for infectious complications after open fractures; a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int Orthop. 2017;41(10):1965-1982. PMID: 28744800. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-017-3556-5
Foote CJ, Tornetta P, Reito A, et al. A reevaluation of the risk of infection based on time to debridement in open fractures: results of the GOLIATH meta-analysis of observational studies and limited trial data. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2021;103(3):265-273. PMID: 33298796. https://doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.20.01103
Singh A, Bierrum WRN, Wormald JCR, Eastwood DM. Non-operative versus operative management of open fractures in the paediatric population: a systematic review and meta-analysis of the adverse outcomes. Injury. 2020;51(7):1477-1488. PMID: 32416941. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.injury.2020.03.055
Medical disclaimer
This article is for informational purposes only and is not a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always seek the advice of a qualified healthcare provider with any questions about a medical condition or before making decisions about treatment. Never disregard professional medical advice or delay seeking it because of something you have read here.
Comments