What Is Choriocarcinoma? Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment and Outlook
Updated: 1 day ago
Medically reviewed by Dr. Baraa Alnahhal, MD · Last reviewed: October 2026
Quick Answer: What is choriocarcinoma?
Choriocarcinoma is a rare, aggressive cancer that develops from trophoblasts, the cells that form the placenta during pregnancy. [1] The most common symptoms are irregular vaginal bleeding and pelvic pain after a recent pregnancy. [1] Because it can spread rapidly to the lungs, brain and liver, prompt diagnosis matters. [1] Chemotherapy cures most cases, and many people can still have children. [1] [5]
Key takeaways
Choriocarcinoma is a rare, aggressive cancer of the uterus or ovaries that grows from placenta-forming cells (trophoblasts). [1]
It is a type of gestational trophoblastic disease (GTD) and most commonly follows a molar pregnancy, though it can occur after ectopic pregnancy, miscarriage, or a normal birth. [1]
The two main symptoms are irregular vaginal bleeding and pelvic pain; spread to other organs can cause coughing, headaches, seizures, or abdominal pain. [1] [3]
About 50% of people with choriocarcinoma had a molar pregnancy, and being younger than 20 or older than 40 during pregnancy raises risk. [1]
Diagnosis uses hCG blood tests, pelvic exams, ultrasound, CT, MRI, and chest X-rays to confirm the cancer and check for spread. [1]
Chemotherapy is the main treatment and usually cures the disease; some cases also need surgery, radiation, or a combination. [1]
Survival rates reach almost 100% for low-risk gestational choriocarcinoma and 94% for high-risk cases. [1]
The cancer cannot be prevented, but talking to a provider after a molar pregnancy helps manage risk, and many people can still have children after treatment. [1]
What the research says
Most gestational choriocarcinoma is cured with chemotherapy, but a small share resists treatment. A 2023 review by the Rare Tumor Working Group and the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer reports that gestational choriocarcinoma makes up 5% of gestational trophoblastic neoplasms, and that about 50% of cases follow a molar pregnancy, 25% a term pregnancy and 25% other gestational events. Low-risk disease (FIGO score 0 to 6) is treated with single-agent chemotherapy and high-risk disease (score 7 or more) with multi-agent chemotherapy. Most patients are cured, but fewer than 5% die because of multi-drug resistance, and immunotherapy responses of 50-70% have been reported from limited data (Bogani et al., Int J Gynecol Cancer, 2023). [5]
Low-risk disease is highly curable, even when the first treatment does not work. A review of low-risk gestational trophoblastic neoplasia (FIGO/WHO score 0 to 6) reports overall survival of approximately 100%, with complete hCG response in 60-90% of patients treated with first-line methotrexate or actinomycin-D in mostly retrospective studies. About 25-30% develop resistance to first-line single-agent chemotherapy, and a diagnosis of choriocarcinoma is one of the factors linked to higher resistance risk, yet almost all of these patients are still cured with sequential single-agent or multi-agent chemotherapy, with or without surgery (Winter, Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol, 2021). [6]
Follow-up hCG testing continues for years after treatment. For high-risk disease, an expert review states that etoposide-based multi-drug regimens are the core of treatment, that treatment should continue until hCG falls below the normal reference range and be followed by at least 3 cycles of consolidation therapy, and that at least 2 years of hCG surveillance are advisable for most patients treated with multi-agent therapy to capture 95% of relapses. It is a narrative review of the field rather than a single trial (Braga et al., Hematol Oncol Clin North Am, 2024). [7]
Modern combination chemotherapy has pushed remission rates very high. In 66 patients with gestational choriocarcinoma in Mongolia, complete remission rose from 69.7% (23 of 33) to 97.0% (32 of 33), and disease-related deaths fell from 30.3% to 3.0%, after the EMA/CO chemotherapy regimen was introduced in 2018. (Sukhbat et al., Frontiers in Oncology, 2026) [8].
Some early-stage cases can be watched closely before starting chemotherapy. Among 199 patients with non-metastatic gestational choriocarcinoma at 13 Brazilian referral centers, 47 were first managed with close hCG monitoring; only 21 of them (44.7%) later needed chemotherapy, and there were no relapses or deaths in either group. (Braga et al., Gynecologic Oncology, 2018) [9].
What Is Choriocarcinoma?
Choriocarcinoma is a rare and aggressive form of cancer that develops in the uterus or ovaries. It grows from cells that were originally part of the placenta during pregnancy. [1] [4] The placenta is the organ that provides oxygen and nutrients to a developing fetus through the umbilical cord, and choriocarcinoma arises when those placental cells turn cancerous.
The most common form is called gestational choriocarcinoma, and it belongs to a group of rare conditions known as gestational trophoblastic disease (GTD). [1] [4] GTD describes a set of conditions that happen during or after pregnancy when tumors form from the placenta. Choriocarcinoma is the most aggressive member of that family — it can spread quickly to other parts of the body.
Fact | Detail |
What it is | A rare, aggressive cancer that grows from placenta-forming cells |
Where it starts | Uterus or ovaries (can also involve testicles in non-gestational cases) |
Cell origin | Trophoblasts — the cells that form the placenta |
Disease family | Gestational trophoblastic disease (GTD) |
How common | Fewer than 7 in 100,000 pregnancies in the U.S. |
Most common trigger | Molar pregnancy (about 50% of cases) |
Main treatment | Chemotherapy, which cures most cases |
Outlook | Almost 100% survival for low-risk cases; 94% for high-risk cases |
Where does choriocarcinoma spread?
Because it is an aggressive cancer, choriocarcinoma can spread quickly to other parts of the body. The most common destinations include the lungs, the uterine muscle layer, the lymph nodes, the liver or kidneys, the brain, and the blood vessels. [1] This ability to spread quickly is exactly why early diagnosis and treatment matter so much — but it is also why it is reassuring that most cases are cured by chemotherapy.
The two types of choriocarcinoma
There are two main types of choriocarcinoma, and the difference between them comes down to whether the cancer is tied to a pregnancy.
Type | Who it affects | How it develops | Relationship to pregnancy |
Gestational choriocarcinoma | People who have been pregnant | Develops during or shortly after pregnancy from placental cells | Directly related to a prior pregnancy |
Non-gestational choriocarcinoma | All sexes | A germ cell tumor that can affect the ovaries, uterine lining, or testicles | Not related to a placenta |
Gestational choriocarcinoma is the more common of the two. Non-gestational choriocarcinoma is a type of germ cell tumor that can affect the ovaries or the uterine lining but is not connected to placental tissue. In males, it can develop in the testicles. [1] [4]
How common is choriocarcinoma?
Choriocarcinoma is very rare. Gestational choriocarcinoma accounts for about 5% of all GTD cases, and GTD itself occurs in only about 0.1% of all pregnancies in the United States. [1] Putting it together, gestational choriocarcinoma occurs in fewer than 7 out of every 100,000 pregnancies in the U.S. [1]
Symptoms and Causes
What are the symptoms of choriocarcinoma?
The earliest warning signs of choriocarcinoma usually appear in someone who was recently pregnant. The two most common symptoms are irregular vaginal bleeding and pelvic pain. [1]
If the cancer spreads to other parts of the body, it can cause additional symptoms that depend on where it has traveled.
Where it spreads | Symptoms it can cause |
Lungs | Coughing or trouble breathing |
Vagina | Heavy bleeding, abnormal discharge, or lumps |
Brain | Seizures or headaches |
Kidneys or liver | Pain in the abdomen |
Because these symptoms overlap with much more common conditions — and because choriocarcinoma itself is so rare — most people who experience bleeding or pelvic pain after a pregnancy do not have this cancer. But these are exactly the symptoms that should prompt a conversation with a healthcare provider, especially after a molar pregnancy.
What causes choriocarcinoma?
Choriocarcinoma happens when cells that form the placenta — called trophoblasts — become cancerous. The cancer can develop early in a pregnancy or occur after a pregnancy has ended.
About 50% of people with choriocarcinoma had a molar pregnancy before developing the cancer. [1] A molar pregnancy happens when the sperm and egg join incorrectly, and fluid-filled sacs or tumors develop inside the uterus instead of a healthy placenta.
Choriocarcinoma can also develop after:
An ectopic pregnancy (when a pregnancy implants outside the uterus)
A miscarriage (a pregnancy that ends on its own)
A termination of pregnancy
A full-term pregnancy that results in the birth of a child
In non-gestational choriocarcinoma, cells in the ovaries, testicles, or uterus start producing human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) — the pregnancy hormone — and they resemble trophoblasts under a microscope, even though no placenta was involved. [1]
How quickly does gestational choriocarcinoma develop?
There is no set timeline for how long it takes to develop. Choriocarcinoma can appear months or years after a pregnancy. [1] Once it does develop, it spreads quickly, which is why it is considered an aggressive type of cancer.
What are the risk factors?
Anyone who has been pregnant — through miscarriage, ectopic pregnancy, termination, or a full-term pregnancy — can develop choriocarcinoma. But the risk is highest for people who have had a molar pregnancy. [1] [3]
Risk factor | Why it matters |
Prior molar pregnancy | About 50% of cases follow a molar pregnancy; this is the strongest risk factor |
Age under 20 during pregnancy | Risk is higher at the youngest pregnancy ages |
Age over 40 during pregnancy | Risk rises again at older pregnancy ages |
What are the complications?
Because this cancer spreads quickly, leaving it untreated can be fatal. [1] The good news is that with treatment, many people achieve remission or are fully cured. As with most cancers, treating choriocarcinoma at its earliest stages produces the most successful results.
Diagnosis and Tests
How is choriocarcinoma diagnosed?
A healthcare provider diagnoses choriocarcinoma using a combination of exams and tests. These same tests also reveal whether the cancer has spread to other parts of the body. [1]
Test | What it does |
Pelvic or physical exam | Checks for lumps or masses |
hCG blood test | Measures human chorionic gonadotropin, which is high in people with choriocarcinoma |
Liver and kidney function blood tests | Checks how well these organs are working |
Complete blood count (CBC) | Assesses overall blood health |
Pelvic ultrasound | Images the uterus and ovaries |
CT scan | Looks for tumors and spread inside the body |
MRI | Produces detailed images of soft tissue |
Chest X-ray | Checks the lungs, a common site of spread |
The hCG blood test plays a central role. hCG is the hormone the placenta creates during pregnancy, and levels are high in people with choriocarcinoma. [1] Providers track hCG levels to guide treatment, and keep checking them after levels return to normal to watch for the cancer coming back. [2] [7]
Management and Treatment
How is choriocarcinoma treated?
Providers treat choriocarcinoma differently depending on its stage — the rating based on the size of the tumor, whether it has spread outside the uterus, and other factors. Overall health and personal preferences are also considered when building a treatment plan.
The main treatment is chemotherapy, a drug-based treatment that kills cancer cells. [1] Depending on the stage and situation, some people may also need:
Treatment | What it involves |
Chemotherapy | Drugs that kill cancer cells; the main treatment for most cases |
Hysterectomy (surgery) | Removal of the uterus |
Radiation | Targeted high-energy treatment for specific areas |
Combination therapy | Two or more of the above used together |
After treatment, providers schedule follow-up exams to make sure the cancer does not return.
Is choriocarcinoma curable?
Yes — choriocarcinoma is curable. Treatment with chemotherapy is usually successful in curing it, and the prognosis is better when the cancer is caught early, before it spreads to other parts of the body. [1]
However, the cancer is harder to cure in certain situations:
You have already had chemotherapy and it was unsuccessful [1]
The disease developed after a full-term pregnancy or the birth of a child [1]
hCG levels are higher than 40,000 mIU/ml (milli-international units per milliliter) before treatment [1]
You have had symptoms, or were pregnant, for more than four months before treatment [1]
Outlook and Prognosis
How long can you live with choriocarcinoma?
The outlook for choriocarcinoma in its early stages is good. Survival rates reach almost 100% for low-risk gestational choriocarcinoma and 94% for high-risk cases. [1]
Scenario | Survival rate / outlook |
Low-risk gestational choriocarcinoma | Almost 100% |
High-risk gestational choriocarcinoma | 94% |
Non-gestational choriocarcinoma | Worse prognosis; less responsive to chemotherapy |
Stage 4 (spread to brain, liver, or elsewhere) | Remission is still possible |
Non-gestational choriocarcinoma — the type not related to a prior pregnancy or placental tissue — has a worse prognosis. It is less chemosensitive, meaning chemotherapy may not be as effective at killing the cancer cells. [1] [2]
Can stage 4 choriocarcinoma be cured?
Stage 4 choriocarcinoma means the cancer has spread to other parts of the body, such as the brain and liver. Providers will discuss your individual outlook with you, but even at this stage, it is still possible to go into remission. [1]
Prevention
Can I prevent choriocarcinoma?
No, you cannot prevent choriocarcinoma. [1] If you have had a molar pregnancy, talk to your healthcare provider about your personal risk for choriocarcinoma. Staying connected with follow-up care after a molar pregnancy is the single most useful protective step available.
Living With
Can I still have a baby if I had choriocarcinoma?
Maybe. Many people are able to have children after treatment for choriocarcinoma. [1] It depends on your specific diagnosis and treatment. Discuss your desire for children with your healthcare provider so they know how to best treat you — treatment choices can be adjusted when preserving fertility is a priority.
When should I see my healthcare provider?
Contact your healthcare provider if you develop unusual vaginal bleeding or pelvic pain, especially if you have had a molar pregnancy. These are the two hallmark symptoms, and catching the cancer early — before it spreads — leads to the best results.
Conclusion
Choriocarcinoma is a rare but serious cancer that grows from placental cells in the uterus or ovaries. It usually follows a molar pregnancy, though it can occur after any kind of pregnancy — or in rare non-gestational cases, with no pregnancy at all. The two symptoms worth knowing are irregular vaginal bleeding and pelvic pain, particularly in someone who was recently pregnant, and the cancer's ability to spread to the lungs, brain, liver, or kidneys makes prompt medical evaluation important. The most encouraging fact of all: with hCG blood tests, imaging, and timely chemotherapy, choriocarcinoma is usually curable, with survival rates approaching 100% for low-risk cases.
If you or a loved one are facing this diagnosis, write down your questions and bring them to your provider.
Want to explain health topics like this one visually? For readers who work with health information visually — educators, nurses, content creators, and clinicians — Rinnit's infographic templates make it easier to turn complex health topics like gestational trophoblastic disease into clear, shareable visuals.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is choriocarcinoma?
Choriocarcinoma is a rare, aggressive cancer that develops in the uterus or ovaries from trophoblasts — the cells that form the placenta during pregnancy. It is a type of gestational trophoblastic disease.
Is choriocarcinoma a cancer?
Yes. It is a malignant (cancerous) tumor, not a benign growth, and it can spread quickly to other parts of the body.
Where does choriocarcinoma start?
It starts in the uterus or ovaries, growing from placenta-forming cells. In non-gestational cases, it can also develop in the testicles.
What is gestational trophoblastic disease (GTD)?
GTD is a group of rare conditions that happen in pregnancy when tumors form from the placenta. Choriocarcinoma is the most aggressive type in this family.
What are trophoblasts?
Trophoblasts are the cells that form the placenta during pregnancy. When these cells become cancerous, they can develop into choriocarcinoma.
What does the placenta do during pregnancy?
The placenta provides oxygen and nutrients to a fetus through the umbilical cord.
What is the difference between gestational and non-gestational choriocarcinoma?
Gestational choriocarcinoma develops during or shortly after a pregnancy from placental cells. Non-gestational choriocarcinoma is a germ cell tumor affecting the ovaries, uterine lining, or testicles and is not related to a placenta.
Can men get choriocarcinoma?
Yes. In males, non-gestational choriocarcinoma can develop in the testicles.
What is a germ cell tumor?
A germ cell tumor develops from reproductive cells. Non-gestational choriocarcinoma is one type of germ cell tumor.
How rare is choriocarcinoma?
Very rare. It occurs in fewer than 7 out of every 100,000 pregnancies in the United States.
What percentage of GTD cases are choriocarcinoma?
Gestational choriocarcinoma accounts for about 5% of all GTD cases.
How common is gestational trophoblastic disease overall?
GTD occurs in about 0.1% of all pregnancies in the United States.
Who is most at risk for choriocarcinoma?
Anyone who has been pregnant can develop it, but people who have had a molar pregnancy are at the highest risk.
Does a molar pregnancy cause choriocarcinoma?
About 50% of people with choriocarcinoma had a molar pregnancy beforehand, making it the strongest risk factor — but most people with molar pregnancies never develop choriocarcinoma.
Can choriocarcinoma happen after a normal pregnancy?
Yes. It can develop after a full-term pregnancy that results in the birth of a child, as well as after miscarriage, ectopic pregnancy, or termination.
Does age affect choriocarcinoma risk?
Yes. Being younger than 20 or older than 40 during pregnancy raises the risk.
Can choriocarcinoma develop after a miscarriage?
Yes. A miscarriage is one of the pregnancy events that can precede choriocarcinoma.
Can choriocarcinoma develop after an ectopic pregnancy?
Yes. Ectopic pregnancy is another pregnancy event associated with choriocarcinoma.
What are the most common symptoms of choriocarcinoma?
Irregular vaginal bleeding and pelvic pain, especially in someone who was recently pregnant.
Is vaginal bleeding the main sign of choriocarcinoma?
It is one of the two primary signs, along with pelvic pain.
What happens when choriocarcinoma spreads to the lungs?
It can cause coughing or trouble breathing.
What happens when it spreads to the brain?
It can cause seizures or headaches.
What happens when it spreads to the vagina?
It can cause heavy bleeding, abnormal discharge, or lumps.
What happens when it spreads to the liver or kidneys?
It can cause pain in the abdomen.
Can choriocarcinoma spread to the blood vessels?
Yes. The cancer can spread to the lungs, uterine muscle layer, lymph nodes, liver or kidneys, brain, and blood vessels.
What causes choriocarcinoma?
It happens when trophoblasts — the cells that form the placenta — become cancerous.
What is a molar pregnancy?
A molar pregnancy occurs when the sperm and egg join incorrectly and fluid-filled sacs or tumors develop inside the uterus instead of a healthy placenta.
How long after a pregnancy can choriocarcinoma appear?
There is no set timeline. It can occur months or years after a pregnancy.
Is choriocarcinoma aggressive?
Yes. It spreads quickly and is considered an aggressive type of cancer.
What is hCG and why does it matter in choriocarcinoma?
hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) is the hormone the placenta creates during pregnancy. In choriocarcinoma, hCG levels are elevated, which makes blood testing for it a key diagnostic tool.
What happens in non-gestational choriocarcinoma at the cellular level?
Cells in the ovaries, testicles, or uterus start making hCG and resemble trophoblasts under a microscope, even though no placenta was involved.
How is choriocarcinoma diagnosed?
Through a combination of pelvic or physical exams, hCG blood tests, liver and kidney function tests, CBC, pelvic ultrasound, CT scan, MRI, and chest X-ray.
What does a pelvic exam check for in choriocarcinoma?
Lumps or masses.
Why is an hCG blood test used to diagnose choriocarcinoma?
Because hCG levels are high in people with choriocarcinoma, the blood test serves as both a diagnostic marker and a treatment-monitoring tool.
Does choriocarcinoma show up on ultrasound?
A pelvic ultrasound images the uterus and ovaries as part of the diagnostic workup.
Why is a chest X-ray part of choriocarcinoma diagnosis?
The lungs are a common site of spread, so a chest X-ray checks for that.
Can these tests tell if the cancer has spread?
Yes. The imaging and blood tests can show whether the cancer has spread to other parts of the body.
What is the main treatment for choriocarcinoma?
Chemotherapy — drugs that kill cancer cells — is the main treatment and usually succeeds in curing the disease.
Do some people need surgery for choriocarcinoma?
Yes. Some people need a hysterectomy (removal of the uterus), radiation, or a combination of treatments alongside chemotherapy.
How is the treatment plan decided?
Providers base it on the cancer's stage (tumor size and spread), overall health, and personal preferences.
What is cancer staging?
Staging is how a provider rates a cancer based on the size of the tumor, whether it has spread outside the uterus, and other factors.
Is follow-up needed after choriocarcinoma treatment?
Yes. Providers schedule follow-up exams to make sure the cancer does not return.
What hCG level makes choriocarcinoma harder to cure?
An hCG level higher than 40,000 mIU/ml before treatment is one factor that makes the cancer harder to cure.
What other factors make choriocarcinoma harder to cure?
Having had unsuccessful chemotherapy before, developing the disease after a full-term pregnancy, and having symptoms or being pregnant for more than four months before treatment.
Is choriocarcinoma curable?
Yes. Chemotherapy usually cures it, and prognosis is better when the cancer is caught early, before it spreads.
What is the survival rate for low-risk gestational choriocarcinoma?
Almost 100%.
What is the survival rate for high-risk gestational choriocarcinoma?
94%.
How does non-gestational choriocarcinoma compare?
It has a worse prognosis and is less chemosensitive, meaning chemotherapy may not be as effective.
What does chemosensitive mean?
It describes how responsive a cancer is to chemotherapy — how well the drugs kill the cancer cells.
Can stage 4 choriocarcinoma be cured?
Stage 4 means the cancer has spread to areas like the brain and liver. Remission is still possible, though providers will discuss the individual outlook.
What happens without treatment?
Because the cancer spreads quickly, not getting treatment can be fatal.
Does treating choriocarcinoma early improve outcomes?
Yes. As with most cancers, treating it at its earliest stages has the most successful results.
Can I still have a baby after choriocarcinoma treatment?
Many people can still have children after treatment, depending on the diagnosis. Discuss your desire for children with your provider so treatment can be planned accordingly.
Can choriocarcinoma be prevented?
No. If you have had a molar pregnancy, talk to your provider about your personal risk.
When should I see a healthcare provider about possible choriocarcinoma?
If you develop unusual vaginal bleeding or pelvic pain — especially after a molar pregnancy.
Is a choriocarcinoma diagnosis always devastating?
While a diagnosis is stressful, the outlook is generally very good, and most cases are cured with chemotherapy.
Related Reading
References
Cleveland Clinic. Choriocarcinoma. Cleveland Clinic. Medically reviewed; last updated April 10, 2023. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/24863-choriocarcinoma
Bishop BN, Edemekong PF. Choriocarcinoma. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022 Jan-. Updated August 8, 2022. PMID: 30571055. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK535434/
Cancer Research UK. Symptoms of invasive mole and choriocarcinoma (formerly titled "Symptoms of persistent trophoblastic disease and choriocarcinoma"). Cancer Research UK. Last reviewed September 2, 2025. https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/gestational-trophoblastic-disease-gtd/invasive-mole-choriocarcinoma/symptoms
National Cancer Institute. Choriocarcinoma. NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms. Accessed October 15, 2026. https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/choriocarcinoma
Bogani G, Ray-Coquard I, Mutch D, et al. Gestational choriocarcinoma. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 2023;33(10):1504-1514. PMID: 37758451. https://doi.org/10.1136/ijgc-2023-004704
Winter MC. Treatment of low-risk gestational trophoblastic neoplasia. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2021;74:67-80. PMID: 33741258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2021.01.006
Braga A, Paiva G, Alevato R, et al. Treatment of high-risk gestational trophoblastic neoplasia. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. 2024;38(6):1245-1258. PMID: 39322460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hoc.2024.08.014
Sukhbat U, Batsuuri G, Yamamoto E, et al. Treatment outcomes of gestational choriocarcinoma before and after EMA/CO introduction in Mongolia: a 15-year retrospective cohort study. Front Oncol. 2026;16:1863040. PMID 42539462. https://doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2026.1863040
Braga A, Campos V, Filho JR, et al. Is chemotherapy always necessary for patients with nonmetastatic gestational trophoblastic neoplasia with histopathological diagnosis of choriocarcinoma? Gynecol Oncol. 2018;148(2):239-246. PMID 29248195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ygyno.2017.12.007
Medical disclaimer
This article is for informational purposes only and is not a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always seek the advice of a qualified healthcare provider with any questions about a medical condition or before making decisions about treatment. Never disregard professional medical advice or delay seeking it because of something you have read here.
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